Zhou Dynasty

周朝 Zhou Dynasty Kingdom ← 1045 BC–256 BC → Population concentration and boundaries of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1050–771 BC) in China Capital Haojing, Luoyang Language(s) Chinese Religion Chinese folk religion, Hundred Schools of Thought Government Monarchy/Feudalism History  - Battle of Muye 1045 BC  - Disestablished 256 BC Population  - 273 BC est. 30,000,000   - 230 BC est. 38,000,000  Currency Mostly spade coins and knife coins

History of China
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BC
Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BC
Zhou Dynasty 1045–256 BC
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn Period
Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BC–206 BC
Han Dynasty 206 BC–220 AD
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265–420
Western Jin	16 Kingdoms 304–439
Eastern Jin
Southern & Northern Dynasties 420–589
Sui Dynasty 581–618
Tang Dynasty 618–907
( Second Zhou 690–705 )
5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms 907–960	Liao Dynasty 907–1125
Song Dynasty 960–1279
Northern Song		W. Xia
Southern Song	Jin
Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644
Qing Dynasty 1644–1911
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present	Republic of China (Taiwan) 1945–present
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The Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC) followed the Shang Dynasty and was followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history — though the actual political and military control of China by the dynasty only lasted during the Western Zhou period. During the Zhou Dynasty, the use of iron was introduced to China,^[1] while this period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the ancient stage as seen in early Western Zhou bronze inscriptions, to the beginnings of the modern stage, in the form of the archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period.

During the Zhou Dynasty, the origins of native Chinese philosophy developed, its initial stages beginning in the 6th century BC. The greatest Chinese philosophers, those who made the greatest impact on later generations of Chinese, were Confucius, founder of Confucianism, and Laozi, founder of Taoism. Other philosophers, theorists, and schools of thought in this era were Mozi, founder of Mohism; Mencius, a famous Confucian who expanded upon Confucius' legacy; Shang Yang and Han Feizi, responsible for the development of ancient Chinese Legalism (the core philosophy of the Qin Dynasty); and Xunzi, who was arguably the center of ancient Chinese intellectual life during his time, even more so than iconic intellectual figures such as Mencius.^[2]

History

Early history

According to legend, during the reign of the Emperor Yao (c 2358 - 2258 BC), Jiang Yuan stepped on the footprint of the high god Di and gave birth to Hou Ji, the Lord of Millet, who taught his people to grow crops. His son Buku is said to have lived during the later Xia Dynasty (c 2072-1600 BC). Buku's grandson was Gong Liu and after eight generations comes the semi-historical Gu Gong Danfu, also known as Tai Wang or Great King. At this time, the Zhou clan said to have lived in a place near the Rong and Di barbarians called Bin, which may be near Linfen on the Fen River in Shanxi.^[3] Oracle bones mention a state called Zhou near the Fen river that fought the Shang around 1180 BC. Gu Gong Danfu led his people over the mountains to the middle Wei River valley where they built a town near Mount Qi. His son, Jili, fought many wars along the Wei and Fen rivers against the Rong as a vassal of the Shang Dynasty king Wen Ding (1116-1107 or 1112-1102 BC) until the king killed him. Jili's son Chang apparently ruled for a while but was arrested by King Di Xin of Shang and held for seven years. About 1060 BC he was ransomed and given the exclusive right to conduct wars to the west of Shang. About 1053 BC he took the title of King Wen of Zhou and captured the states of Qi or Li near Changzhi and Yu near Qinyang. This gave him control of southeast Shanxi, threatened the Shang capital to the east and made the Yellow River corridor to the south the strategic key. He moved the capital downstream to Fenghao near present Xi'an. He died during or after another campaign probably near Luoyang near the Yellow River and was followed by his son King Wu of Zhou. In a seeming demonstration of strength, King Wu led an army down the south bank of the Yellow River to the Mengjin ford where he met with 800 local lords and then turned back. Two years later, in 1046 BC, he led 45,000 men and 300 chariots down the same route, crossed the Yellow River and conquered the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye.

Western Zhou (1046-771 BC)

The dynasty was successful for about seventy-five years and then slowly lost power. The former Shang lands were divided into hereditary fiefs which became increasingly independent of the king. In 771 BC barbarians drove the Zhou out of the Wei River Valley and after that real power was in the hands of the king's nominal vassals.

King Wu died two or three years after the conquest. He was followed by his young son King Cheng of Zhou (1042-1021 BC). The regency was taken by Wu's brother Zhou Gong Dan. Wu's other brothers, including Shu Du of Cai, who were ruling the newly conquered lands in the east, rebelled. Zhou Gong Dan defeated the rebellion and continued east bringing a number of other peoples under Zhou rule. Various royal relatives and generals were given fiefs in the east, including Luoyang, Jin, Ying, Lu, Qi and Yan. Many of these became major states when the dynasty weakened. The remainder of his reign and that of his son King Kang of Zhou (1021-996) seems to have been peaceful and prosperous.

The fourth king, King Zhao of Zhou (996-977 BC) led an army south against Chu and was killed along with a large part of the Zhou army. The fifth king, King Mu of Zhou (977-922 BC) is remembered for his legendary visit to the Queen Mother of the West. Territory was lost to the Xu Rong in the southeast. The kingdom seems to have weakened during his long reign. One possible reason is that the fiefs that were originally held by royal brothers were now held by third and fourth cousins. The reigns of kings six through nine (Gong, Yi, Xiao and a second Yi) (922-878 BC) are poorly documented. The eighth king may have been a usurper. The ninth king is said to have boiled the Duke of Qi in a cauldron, which implies that the vassals were no longer obedient. The tenth king, King Li of Zhou (877-841 BC) was forced into exile and power was held for fourteen years by Gong He. Li's overthrow may have been accompanied by China's first recorded peasant rebellion. When Li died in exile Gong He retired and power passed to Li's son King Xuan of Zhou (827-782 BC). Xuan worked to restore royal authority but later in his reign the lords became disobedient. The twelfth and last king of the Western Zhou was King You of Zhou (781-771 BC). When he replaced his wife with the concubine Baosi his father-in-law the Marquess of Shen allied with the Quanrong nomads and attacked the capital Fenghao. The Quanrong sacked the capital and killed King You. Most of the Zhou nobles withdrew from the Wei River valley and the capital was reestablished downriver at the old eastern capital of Chengzhou near Luoyang. This was the start of the Eastern Zhou period.

Western and Eastern Zhou

Initially the Ji family was able to control the country and the people in it firmly. In 771 BC, after King You had replaced his queen with a concubine Baosi, the capital was sacked by a joint force of the queen's father, who was the powerful Marquess of Shen, and a nomadic tribe, the Quanrong. The queen's son Ji Yijiu was proclaimed the new king by nobles from the states of Zheng, Lu, Qin, Xu and Shen. The capital was moved eastward in 770 BC from Haojing to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province. Because of this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into the Western Zhou (Chinese: 西周; pinyin: Xī Zhōu), lasting up until 771 BC, and the Eastern Zhou (simplified Chinese: 东周; traditional Chinese: 東周; pinyin: Dōng Zhōu) from 770 up to 256 BC. The beginning year of the Western Zhou has been disputed; 1122 BC, 1027 BC and other years within the hundred years from late 12th century BC to late 11th century BC have been proposed. Chinese historians take 841 BC as the first year of consecutive annual dating of the history of China, based on the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. The Eastern Zhou corresponds roughly to two subperiods. The first, from 722 to 481 BC, is called the Spring and Autumn Period, after a famous historical chronicle of the time; the second is known as the Warring States Period (403 to 221 BC), after another famous chronicle and initiated by the partitioning of Jin. The Warring States Period extended slightly past the 256 BC end date of Eastern Zhou; this discrepancy is due to the fact that the last Zhou king's reign ended in 256 BC, 35 years before the beginning of the Qin Dynasty that ended the Warring States period.

The Eastern Zhou period is also designated as the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought. This is a reference to the different schools of historical Chinese intellectual thought. The four main distinct schools were Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism and Legalism, along with a host of others. These schools of thought contributed to social, philosophical and political change which played a large part in the decline of the Zhou dynasty.^[2]

Decline

With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou court gradually diminished, and the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. From King Ping's reign (pre-771-720 BC) onwards, the Zhou kings ruled in name only, with true power lying in the hands of powerful nobles. Towards the end of the Zhou Dynasty, the nobles did not even bother to acknowledge the Ji family symbolically, but rebelled and declared themselves to be kings. The dynasty was ended in 256 BC, before Qin Shi Huang's unification of China in 221 BC, when the last king of Zhou died and his sons did not proclaim the nominal titles of King of China.

Mandate of Heaven

A Western Zhou bronze gui vessel, c. 1000 BC

In the Chinese historical tradition, the Zhou defeated the Shang and oriented the Shang system of ancestor worship towards a universalized worship, away from the worship of Di and to that of Tian or "heaven". They legitimized their rule by invoking the "Mandate of Heaven", the notion that the ruler (the "Son of Heaven") governed by divine right but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the Mandate. Such things that proved the ruling family had lost the Mandate were natural disasters and rebellions. The doctrine explained and justified the demise of the Xia and Shang dynasties and at the same time supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers. Before conquering Shang, Zhou was a state in Shaanxi.^[4] Gernet^[4] describes the Zhou state as a "city" which was in contact with the barbarian peoples of the western regions and more warlike than the Shang. The Zhou dynasty was founded by the Ji family and operated from four capitals throughout its history.^[5] Sharing the language and culture of the Shang, the early Zhou rulers, through conquest and colonization, established a large imperial territory wherein states as far as Shandong acknowledged Zhou rulership and took part in elite culture. The spread of Zhou bronzes, though, was concurrent with the continued use of Shang-style pottery in the distant regions, and these states were the last to recede during the late Western war. The mandate of heaven was based on rules. The emperor was granted the right to rule by heaven.

Zhou military

The early Western Zhou supported a strong army, split into two major units: "the Six Armies of the west" and "the Eight Armies of Chengzhou". The armies campaigned in the northern Loess Plateau, modern Ningxia and the Yellow River floodplain. The military prowess of Zhou peaked during the 19th year of King Zhao's reign, when the six armies were wiped out along with King Zhao on a campaign around the Han River. Early Zhou kings were true commanders-in-chief. They were in constant wars with barbarians on behalf of the fiefs called guo, meaning statelet or principality. Charles Hucker noted that Zhou had 14 standing royal armies, with six stationed in Haojing, near present-day Xi'an, and eight armies stationed in the east. King Zhao was famous for repeated campaigns in the Yangtze areas and died in his last action. Later kings' campaigns were less effective. King Li led 14 armies against barbarians in the south but failed to achieve any victory. King Xuan fought the Quanrong nomads in vain. King You was killed by the Quanrong, and the capital Haojing was sacked. Although chariots had been introduced to China during the Shang Dynasty,^[6] the Zhou period saw the use of massed chariots in battle, a technology imported from Central Asia.^[7]

Fengjian Feudalism

A Western Zhou ceremonial bronze of cooking-vessel form inscribed to record that the King of Zhou gave a fiefdom to Shi You, ordering that he inherit the title as well as the land and people living there

Western Zhou Dynasty musical bronze bell

In the West, the Zhou period is often described as feudal because the Zhou's early rule invites comparison with medieval rule in Europe. However, historians debate whether or not this description is valid; the more appropriate term for the Zhou Dynasty's political arrangement would be from the Chinese language itself: the Fēngjiàn (封建) system. The Zhou amalgam of city-states became progressively centralized and established increasingly impersonal political and economic institutions. These developments, which probably occurred in the later Zhou period, were manifested in greater central control over local governments and a more routinized agrarian taxation. Zhou officials were not paid a salary but instead were given semi-regular gifts by the King, which often included land in the Wei River valley. Imperial stability was ensured through marriages between the Zhou court and local lords as well as the installment of Zhou lords into command over distant regions.

Agriculture

Zhou vase with glass inlays, 4th-3rd century BC, British Museum.

Agriculture in the Zhou Dynasty was very intensive and, in many cases, directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles, who then gave their land to their serfs, a situation similar to European feudalism. For example, a piece of land was divided into nine squares in the well-field system, with the grain from the middle square taken by the government and that of surrounding squares kept by individual farmers. This way, the government was able to store surplus food and distribute it in times of famine or bad harvest. Some important manufacturing sectors during this period included bronze smelting, which was integral to making weapons and farming tools. Again, these industries were dominated by the nobility who directed the production of such materials.

China's first projects of hydraulic engineering were initiated during the Zhou Dynasty, ultimately as a means to aid agricultural irrigation. The chancellor of Wei, Sunshu Ao, who served King Zhuang of Chu, dammed a river to create an enormous irrigation reservoir in modern-day northern Anhui province. For this, Sunshu is credited as China's first hydraulic engineer. The later Wei statesman Ximen Bao, who served Marquis Wen of Wei (445-396 BC), is the first hydraulic engineer of China to have created a large irrigation canal system. As the main focus of his grandiose project, his canal work eventually diverted the waters of the entire Zhang River (漳河) to a spot further up the Yellow River.

Art

Defang bronze ritual vessel, Western Zhou Dynasty	Dake bronze ritual vessel, Western Zhou Dynasty	You bronze ritual vessel, Western Zhou Dynasty	Qizhong Hu bronze vessel, Western Zhou Dynasty
Dou vessel with a hunting scene, Eastern Zhou Dynasty	A bo bell of the Duke of Qin, Eastern Zhou Dynasty	Pu vessel with dragon designs, Eastern Zhou Dynasty	A jade bi with two dragons, Eastern Zhou Dynasty
Eastern Zhou bronze ritual food vessel (ding) with lacquer design, 5th-4th century BC	An Eastern Zhou Dynasty bronze ding vessel	An Eastern Zhou Dynasty bronze musical bell	Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasty bronze vessels
An Eastern Zhou Dynasty bronze and silver canteen	A square bronze hu vessel, Eastern Zhou Dynasty	An Eastern Zhou Dynasty bronze bird-shaped wine server	Embroidered silk gauze garment from a 4th century BC, Zhou era tomb at Mashan, Hubei province.
Silk painting of a man railing a dragon, 6th century BC.	Western Zhou Dynasty bronze mirror holder c. 1000 BC (Hainan Provincial Museum).

Zhou dynasty kings

See also

• Family tree of the Zhou Dynasty
• Four occupations
• Historical capitals of China
• Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
• Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project

Notes

References

• Michael Loewe and Edward L, Shaughnessy (editors) "The Cambridge History of Ancient China", 1999
• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall, James B. Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
• Khayutina, Maria (2003). "Where Was the Western Zhou Capital?". The Warring States Working Group, WSWG-17. Leiden Germany: Warring States Project. pp. 14. http://www.sinits.com/research/WesternZhouCapital.pdf. 
• Lee, Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. (1999). Chinese Musical Instruments (Chinese Music Monograph Series). Chinese Music Society of North America Press. ISBN 1-880464-03-9
• Shen, Sinyan (1987), Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells, Scientific American, 256, 94.
• Sun, Yan. 2006. "Cultural and Political Control in North China: Style and Use of the Bronzes of Yan at Liulihe during the Early Western Zhou." In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Edited by Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. Pages 215-237. ISBN 9780824828844; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4.
• Feng, Li. 2006. Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045-771 BC
• Schirokauer & Brown 2006. "A Brief history of Chinese civilization: second edition" Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, pp. 25–47
• Wagner, D. G. "The Earliest Use of Iron in China" in Metals in Antiquity, Edited by S. M. M. Young, A. M. Pollard, P. Budd and R. A. Ixer, Oxford: Archaeopress. 1999, pp. 1–9.

External links

• Chaos.UMD.edu, History of the Zhou Dynasty, Army Area Handbook on China, Rinn-Sup Shinn and Robert L. Worden, compiled by Leon Poon
• OurOrient.com, Feudal States of the Zhou Dynasty, Jiang Yike
• Dsturgeon.net, Rulers of the Zhou states - with links to their occurrences in pre-Qin and Han texts.
• ChinaWikipedia.com, History of China